FREESTYLE SWIMMING SKILL CHANGES FOLLOWING SCHMIDT’S MOTOR SCHEMA THEORY-BASED VARIABLE PRACTICE IN BEGINNER ATHLETES

Authors

Salshabilla Rahmaputri Universitas Majalengka
Udi Sahudi Universitas Majalengka
Endi Rustandi Universitas Majalengka

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.31949/ijoehm.v6i1.183

Keywords:

Motor schema theory, Variable practice, Freestyle swimming, Motor learning, Beginner athletes

Abstract

Freestyle swimming requires coordinated execution of body position, leg movement, arm movement, and breathing, making the development of adaptable motor skills particularly important for beginner athletes. This study examined changes in freestyle swimming skills following a variable-practice program based on Schmidt’s Motor Schema Theory among beginner athletes at PR Putrajaya. A quantitative pre-experimental approach was employed using a one-group pretest–posttest design. The participants were 10 beginner athletes who participated in a structured training program comprising 14 total sessions, including pretest and posttest assessments. The program incorporated systematic variations in swimming speed, distance, rhythm, breathing, and movement patterns while maintaining the fundamental structure of freestyle swimming. Freestyle swimming skill was assessed using a four-component technical rubric covering body position, leg movement, arm movement, and breathing, with a maximum total score of 16. Descriptive statistics and a paired-samples t-test were used to examine pretest–posttest changes. The mean total skill score increased from 10.50 (SD = 0.85) at pretest to 13.60 (SD = 1.43) at posttest, representing a mean increase of 3.10 points. The paired-samples t-test indicated a statistically significant pretest–posttest difference, t(9) = 8.188, p < .001. Improvements were observed across all four technical components, with the largest descriptive increase occurring in breathing. These findings provide preliminary evidence of improvement in observed freestyle swimming skill following structured variable practice and are theoretically consistent with the principles of practice variability associated with Schmidt’s Motor Schema Theory. However, because the study used a one-group pretest–posttest design with only 10 athletes, the findings do not establish a definitive causal effect of the intervention. Further controlled research with larger samples, retention tests, and transfer assessments is needed to determine whether the observed changes represent durable and adaptable motor learning.

References

Adams, J. A. (1971). A closed-loop theory of motor learning. Journal of Motor Behavior, 3(2), 111–150. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222895.1971.10734898

Apolinário-Souza, T., Santos Almeida, A. F., Lelis-Torres, N., Otoni Parma, J., Pereira, G. S., & Menezes Lage, G. (2020). Molecular mechanisms associated with the benefits of variable practice in motor learning. Journal of Motor Behavior, 52(5), 515–526. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222895.2019.1649997

Ardiningsih, R. L., Sobarna, A., & Hambali, S. (2026). Integrating skill development and water confidence in freestyle swimming: An application-based training model. Jurnal Porkes, 9(2), 663–674. https://doi.org/10.29408/porkes.v9i2.34104

Arhesa, S., & Badriah, D. L. (2021). Aquatic training with play methods in improving swimming skills in preschool children. International Journal of Human Movement and Sports Sciences, 9(4), 106–111. https://doi.org/10.13189/saj.2021.091318

Caballero, C., Barbado, D., Peláez, M., & Moreno, F. J. (2024). Applying different levels of practice variability for motor learning: More is not better. PeerJ. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.17575

Cacola, P., Pablos, A., & Gabbard, C. (2012). Effects of variable versus constant practice in older adults' fine motor task performance. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 115(1), 107–116. https://doi.org/10.2466/24.03.PMS.115.4.107-116

Gonzalez, D. H., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2018). Relatedness support enhances motor learning. Psychological Research, 82, 439–447. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-016-0833-7

Landin, D., & Hebert, E. P. (1997). A comparison of three practice schedules along the contextual interference continuum. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 68(4), 357–361. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.1997.10608016

Landis, J. R., & Koch, G. G. (1977). The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics, 33(1), 159–174. https://doi.org/10.2307/2529310

Lawshe, C. H. (1975). A quantitative approach to content validity. Personnel Psychology, 28(4), 563–575. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1975.tb00514.x

McCracken, H. D., & Stelmach, G. E. (1977). A test of the schema theory of discrete motor learning. Journal of Motor Behavior, 9(3), 193–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222895.1977.10735109

Meira, C. M., & Tani, G. (2001). The contextual interference effect as a function of the number of task variations practiced and amount of practice. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 72(2), 167–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2001.10608947

Minkels, C., van der Kamp, J., de Vries, R., & Beek, P. J. (2025). Learning how to swim in 5- to 12-year-old children: A scoping review of evidence-based motor learning methods. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 7, 1505301. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2025.1505301

Moxley, S. E. (1979). Schema: The variability of practice hypothesis. Journal of Motor Behavior, 11(1), 65–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222895.1979.10735173

Nur'aeni, E., Rustandi, E., & Arhesa, S. (2023). Pengaruh latihan variasi terhadap keterampilan renang gaya bebas pada atlet pemula. Jurnal Educatio FKIP UNMA, 9(1), 366–371. https://doi.org/10.31949/educatio.v9i1.4562

Orangi, B. M., Yaali, R., Bahram, A., van der Kamp, J., & Aghdasi, M. T. (2021). The effects of linear, nonlinear, and differential motor learning methods on the emergence of creative action in individual soccer players. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 56, 102009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.102009

Raswin, R., & Nasution, U. (2025). The impact of audio-visual-based learning media on freestyle swimming ability. EDUKASIA Jurnal Pendidikan dan Pembelajaran, 6(1), 497–508. https://doi.org/10.62775/edukasia.v6i1.1446

Rezki, R., Zulkifli, Z., Jatra, R., & Aprianti, L. (2022). An analysis of freestyle swimming technique on students of the Physical Education, Health and Leisure Study Program. INSPIREE: Indonesian Sport Innovation Review, 3(2), 93–105. https://doi.org/10.53905/inspiree.v3i02.78

Schmidt, R. A. (1975). A schema theory of discrete motor skill learning. Psychological Review, 82(4), 225–260. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076770

Sembiring, J. B., & Nasution, M. F. A. (2022). Pengaruh variasi latihan resistance band terhadap kekuatan otot lengan pada atlet renang putra usia 12–13 tahun Sailfish Swimming Club Medan tahun 2021. Jurnal Ilmu Keolahragaan, 21(1), 65–73. https://doi.org/10.24114/jik.v21i1.34457

Shamshiri, G., Fazeli, D., & Nazemzadegan, G. (2025). Effect of contextual interference and differential learning on motor skill development and motivation in novice basketball players. European Journal of Sport Science, e70061. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsc.70061

Shea, C. H., & Kohl, R. M. (1991). Composition of practice: Influence on the retention of motor skills. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 62(2), 187–195. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.1991.10608709

Shea, J. B., & Morgan, R. L. (1979). Contextual interference effects on the acquisition, retention, and transfer of a motor skill. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 5(2), 179–187. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.5.2.179

Sherwood, D. E., & Lee, T. D. (2003). Schema theory: Critical review and implications for the role of cognition in a new theory of motor learning. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 74(4), 376–382. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2003.10609107

Wulf, G., & Schmidt, R. A. (1994). Feedback-induced variability and the learning of generalized motor programs. Journal of Motor Behavior, 26(4), 348–361. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222895.1994.9941691

Young, D. E., Cohen, M. J., & Husak, W. S. (1993). Contextual interference and motor skill acquisition: On the processes that influence retention. Human Movement Science, 12(5), 577–600. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-9457(93)90005-A

Downloads

Published

2026-02-27

How to Cite

Rahmaputri, S., Sahudi, U. ., & Rustandi, E. . (2026). FREESTYLE SWIMMING SKILL CHANGES FOLLOWING SCHMIDT’S MOTOR SCHEMA THEORY-BASED VARIABLE PRACTICE IN BEGINNER ATHLETES. Indonesian Journal Of Education and Humanity, 6(1), 15–28. https://doi.org/10.31949/ijoehm.v6i1.183